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Shockers: Psychology experiments that we'd ban now16:10 17 September 2014 byAlison George, Alexander Haslamand Stephen ReicherFor similar stories, visit theThe Human BrainTopic GuideIn the 1960s, the psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted his iconic "shock experiments". An "experimenter" instructed each participant to give an unseen person in an adjacent room electric shocks of increasing severity via a control panel. The participants were told that the experiment was testing the effect of punishment on learning. They heard screams of pain in apparent response to their actions, although in reality no one was being hurt. Milgram was fascinated by how far the participants would follow the inhumane instructions of the experimenter. His results suggested that many normal people would be prepared to do terrible things if someone in authority told them to. Read more about "the banality of evil": "Just obeying orders? Rethinking obedience and atrocity". Milgram's theatrical experiments were and are influential, but they had a cost: the participants were induced to experience extreme emotional stress. For that reason, they are considered to be among the most unethical ever carried out. Academic standards have moved on, and professional psychologists could not now replicate Milgram's experiments. Some other studies from the 20th century were intriguing but would also be ethically impossible today, too. Here are four more. The three Christs of YpsilantiIn 1959 psychologist Milton Rokeach brought three psychiatric patients who each thought they were Jesus Christ to live together for two years at Ypsilanti State Hospital in Michigan. His aim was to see if this unusual set-up would alter their delusions. It didn't. Project MKUltra
In this covert CIA research programme from the 1950s and 60s, the mental states of participants – often unwitting ones – were manipulated using mind-altering drugs, hypnosis and sleep deprivation. The exact details are hard to establish, as many of the MKUltra documents were destroyed, but some tests proved lethal. Most notoriously, CIA scientist Frank Olson died in mysterious circumstances after consuming a drink laced with LSD. Little Albert
In this famous 1920 experiment on emotional conditioning, a 9-month-old boy, "Albert B", was first exposed to various stimuli, including a rabbit and a rat, of which he was not afraid. When the appearance of the animal was accompanied by a loud bang, Albert quickly began to display fear in response to the harmless stimulus alone. Not only was the experiment inherently cruel, but Albert was not helped to overcome his conditioned fears. Robbers Cave
To examine how competition between groups affects social relations, psychologist Muzafer Sherif conducted a series of studies between 1949 and 1954 at summer camps for boys in Robbers Cave State Park, Oklahoma. He assigned boys who were friends with each other to different groups and then had them compete for scarce resources. A series of aggressive encounters between the groups ensued – though the animosity was later overcome by team-building exercises. The main ethical problem here was that the boys were unaware they were taking part in an experiment in which their worlds were being deliberately manipulated.
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